Challenges of Interviewing in Oral History

By Mohammad-Mehdi Abdollahzadeh
Translated by Fazel Shirzad

2025-11-17

After years of studying the theoretical foundations of oral history, conducting numerous interviews and going through their post-interview stages, as well as reading the available body of oral history literature, I was eventually given the opportunity to evaluate the edited versions of dozens of oral history projects. I carefully read each text from beginning to end, wrote notes in their margins to address deficiencies, and finally summarized these comments. Therefore, I intend to present my experiences in several parts, hoping they will be useful for students and practitioners of oral history. At the same time, the valuable feedback of readers will provide me with further opportunities for learning and professional growth.

Oral history is the result of purposeful and well-planned interaction and dialogue between two parties: the interviewer and the interviewee. Each of these participants must possess specific qualities, preparedness, and skills so that the interview can achieve its desired outcome.

Some people regard oral history interviewing as an easy task, assuming that the interviewee will simply recount memories while a tape recorder or video camera captures them. However, in that case, the recorded material cannot be considered true oral history and has little scientific value, because in the eyes of scholars, oral history interviews must follow certain principles and standards. In this process, both interviewer and interviewee act as historians, and the scientific value of the result lies in the interaction between them.

To begin, after coordinating with the interviewee about the goals, topic, time, and location of the interview, the interviewer prepares the necessary audio and visual equipment and starts the session. When the two parties sit face to face, various factors—such as appearance, behavior, tone of voice, vitality, communication skills, organization, attentiveness, knowledge, and mutual understanding—shape how each perceives the other, and these impressions inevitably affect the course of the project.

An interviewer who has already gained preliminary knowledge about the interviewee and the subject of discussion enters the process with confidence. This confidence encourages the interviewee to attribute more value to the interviewer and to the interview itself. Such an interviewer knows precisely whom they are facing and what purpose they are pursuing; they may even have formulated their goals in general and specific questions to guide them through the session.

Before officially starting, the interviewer should ask the interviewee to speak naturally and conversationally, emphasizing that there is no need to use formal or literary language. Facing a camera or recorder can make some people uneasy, so patience and attentiveness on the part of the interviewer are crucial. Sometimes the interviewee needs moments of silence to recall memories or organize thoughts; the interviewer’s tolerance and calmness will help resolve such situations smoothly.

An interviewer lacking sufficient knowledge or skill often asks immature, unplanned, aimless, disorganized, or closed-ended questions, turning the meeting into a cold, spiritless session resembling an interrogation. Such interviews typically consist of numerous short questions with equally short answers—“yes,” “no,” or single sentences—which make the transcript tedious and of little value. This happens because the interviewer fails to create an open space for the interviewee to narrate freely and does not show enough verbal and visual engagement to make the interviewee feel that their memories are meaningful, valuable, and worth sharing.

A qualified interviewer, on the other hand, knows that the session should begin with two or three general questions and continue with open-ended ones, so that the atmosphere becomes pleasant for both sides. The interviewer skillfully guides the conversation, generating enthusiasm and motivation in the interviewee, who then participates actively and positively. A good interviewer never asks several questions at once; once a question is asked, they wait until they receive a sufficient answer before moving on.

At the beginning of a session, it is effective to start with broad questions such as, “Tell me about your family or your childhood.” Talking about one’s family or childhood is enjoyable for most people and helps to create a warm and friendly atmosphere, encouraging them to speak about themselves. When the questions follow a chronological order, recalling memories becomes easier for the interviewee.

During the interview, in addition to logical and well-considered questions, the interviewer’s display of interest and use of non-verbal communication play a crucial role. As the old saying goes, “A good listener inspires the speaker.” Thus, the interviewer should act as an active listener, paying close attention to every word. This attentiveness enables them to recognize when clarification or additional detail is needed and to request it at the appropriate time.

The interviewer must also be aware of their own non-verbal signals. For example, glancing at a watch may make the interviewee think the session should end; showing inattention may suggest that their words are unimportant. Emotional synchronization with the interviewee also matters. When the interviewee recalls a sorrowful event, the interviewer’s expression should reflect empathy; when they share a happy memory, the interviewer should respond with visible warmth and pleasure.

A skillful interviewer’s leadership ensures that irrelevant questions are avoided and that if the interviewee digresses from the main objectives, the interviewer tactfully and without damaging rapport redirects the conversation to its proper course. It should also be understood that interviewees are not expected to provide answers exactly as the interviewer anticipates. They are free to elaborate as long as they do not stray too far from the topic. However, if they touch upon an important but unrelated issue, the interviewer should allow them to complete their account before steering back to the main thread.

An interviewer must have full command of the session to avoid repeating previous questions. Otherwise, the interviewee may form a negative impression of their competence. This mastery also helps the interviewer identify contradictions within the testimony and resolve them by asking follow-up questions.

It has been rightly said, “The heart of oral history is the interview.” One might add that the heart of the interview is the right questions. The origin of these questions is the interviewer’s knowledge and learning. As Rumi beautifully puts it: “Both the question and the answer spring from knowledge.” A skilled interviewer understands that every individual has a unique personality; therefore, questions must be tailored to suit each person’s background and temperament. Some interviewees speak at length, answering multiple questions within one response, whereas others prefer brevity. In such cases, the interviewer must rephrase or expand their questions to elicit fuller answers.

Designing purposeful, well-structured questions and leading the session effectively elevate both interviewer and interviewee to the level of historians.

Finally, a competent interviewer reviews and evaluates their performance after every session by asking themselves reflective questions such as:

• Was the beginning and conclusion of the interview appropriate?
• Did the interviewee feel comfortable and at ease?
• Were the questions and answers aligned with the interview’s objectives?
• Did the interview start and end on time?
• What tasks should I have completed before or during the session but failed to do?
• Did I show adequate emotional empathy when necessary?
• Did I properly identify the interview at the beginning (stating the names of both parties, topic, time, and place)?